DEFINITION
Kingsley Davis – Leaving a thing or an attitude and adopting another by a society is
called social change.
MacIver [social change] simply refers to a change in the human relationships.
Merrill – Social change means that large number of persons are engaging in activities
that differ from those in which they or their parents engaged some time before.
Meaning of social change: Any alteration, difference or modification that takes
place in a situation or in an object through time can be called change.
The term ‘social change’ is used to indicate the changes that take place in human
interactions and interrelations. Society is a web of relationships and social change
means a change in the system of social relationships. Thus the term social change
is used to desirable variations in social interaction, social processes and social
organization.
A society generally has two distinct tendencies.
They are conservative and progressive. People in society have their tendency to
conserve or preserve the social heritage of the past. Every society is proud of its own
cultural history of the past. This is what may be describing as the conservative
tendency of the society. But at the same time it has the tendency to change, modify
and improve the existing social heritage. Man is never satisfied with his present
situation or existing condition. He wants to make changes and improvement of the
existing state of affairs.
This change is the law of nature and it is inevitable in the life of an individual as well
as of society. So social change and development is inevitable in human society. It is
also an instinctive tendency in man to have the curiosity for new knowledge and new
experiences. It leads to dissatisfaction with the existing situations that result in the
changes. So, social situation undergoes changes with the changes of time that result
in social progress.
According to Kingsley Davis- “By social change is meant only such alterations
as occur in social organization, that is, structure and functions of society.”
According to Maclver ad Page-“Social change refers to “a process” responsive to
many types of changes; to change in the manmade condition of life; to changes
in the attitudes and beliefs of men, and to the changes that go beyond the
human control to the biological and the physical nature of things”
Aspects of Social Change
Social change is essentially a process of alteration with no reference to the
quality of change.
Changes is society are related/linked to changes in culture, so that it would be
sometimes useful to talk about ‘socio-cultural change. Some sociologists, however,
differentiate between social change and cultural change. Social change is defined
as alterations in the social structure, (including the changes in the size of society)
or in particular social institutions, or in the relationship between institutions. They
feel that social change refers mainly to actual human behavior. Cultural
change, on the other hand, refers to variation in cultural phenomena such as
knowledge and ideas, art, religion moral doctrines, values, beliefs, symbol
systems and so on. This distinction is abstract, because in many situations it is
difficult, or nearly impossible to decide which type of change is occurring. For
instance, growth of modern technology as part of the culture, has been closely
associated with alterations in the economic structures, on important part of the
society.
Social change can vary in its scope and in speed. We can talk of small scale or
large scale changes. Changes can take a cyclical pattern, e.g. when there is the
recurrence of centralization and decentralization in administrative organizations. It
can also be revolutionary. Revolutionary change can be seen when there is an
overthrow of government in a particular nation. Change can also include short term
changes (e.g. in migration rates) as well as long term changes in economic structures.
We can include in social change, both growth and decline in membership and size
of social institutions. Change may include continuous processes like specialization,
and also include discontinuous processes such as a particular technical or social
invention which appears at some point of time.
Change also varies in scope, in that it may influence many aspects of a society
and Social Change disrupt the whole social system. The process of industrialization
which affected many aspects of society. In contrast, the substitution of matches for
rubbing sticks to start a fire had a relatively limited scope.
Some changes occur rapidly but others take a long time. Many of the Western
nations took many decades to become industrialized, but developing nations are
trying to do it more quickly. They do this by borrowing or adapting from those nations
which have already achieved it.
Today most sociologists assume that change is a natural, inevitable, ever present
part of life in every society. When we are looking at social change, we are focusing
not on changes in the experiences of an individual, but on variations in social
structures, institutions and social relationship
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
1. Social change is sometimes intentional and planned, but oftentimes
unplanned.
2. It is inevitable, but some societies change faster than others.
3. It is controversial.
4. Some changes are more important than others.
5. It is a continuous process.
6. The consequences of social change are often unforeseen.
Nature of social change:
a. Social change is continuous:
Society is always undergoing endless changes. Society cannot be preserved in a
museum to save it from the ravages of time. From the dawn of history society has
been in continuous flux.
b. Social change is temporal:
Social change is temporal in the sense it denotes the time of sequence. In fact, society
exists only as a time-sequence. Innovation of new things, modification and
renovation of the existing behavior and the discarding of the old behavior patterns
take time.
c. Social change is environmental:
It must take place within a geographic or physical and cultural context. Both these
contexts have impact on human behavior and in turn man changes them. A social
change never takes place in vacuum.
d. Social change is human change:
The sociological significance of the change consists in the fact that it involves the
human aspect. The composition of society is not constant, but changing.
e. Social change may be planned or unplanned:
The direction and tempo of social change are often conditioned by human plans
and programs of man in order to determine and control the rate and direction of
social change. Unplanned change refers to change resulting from natural calamities
such as famines, floods, earthquakes etc.
f. Short versus long-run changes:
Some social changes may bring about immediate results while some others may take
years and decades to produce results. This distinction is significant, because a
change which appears to be very vital today may be nothing more than a temporary
oscillation having nothing to do with the essential trends of life, some years later.
g. Social change is an objective term:
The term social change describes one of the categorical processes. It has no value-
judgments attached to it. To the sociologist social change as a phenomenon is
neither moral nor immoral, it is amoral. It means the study of social change
involves no value judgment. One can study change even within the value system
without being for against the change.
h. Social change may create chain reaction:
Change in one aspect of life may lead to a series of changes in its other aspects. For
example, change in rights, privileges and status of women has resulted in a series of
changes in home, family relationships and structure, the economic and to some
extent political pattern of both rural and urban society.
THEORIES ON SOCIAL CHANGE
The major sociological theories of change can be classified in various ways. One can,
for instance make a distinction between evolutionary, (linear) and cyclical theories
of social change. Among the former, the most significant are those of Comte, Spencer,
Hobhouse and Marx. Among the latter, the most prominent ones are those of
Spengler, Pareto, and Sorokin. In this unit, we shall briefly examine the following
perspectives on change:
1. The evolutionary perspective.
Evolutionary theories are based on the assumption that societies gradually
change from simple beginnings into even more complex forms. • Early
sociologists beginning with August Comte believed that human societies
evolve in a unilinear way- that is in one line of development. According to him
social change meant progress toward something better. Change is always
positive and beneficial for society. Herbert Spencer took Darwin’s theory and
applied it to how societies change and evolve over time. Spencer did not feel
the need to correct or improve society, for he felt that societies were bound to
change automatically.According to him, society has been gradually
progressing towards a better state. Spencer found similarities between animal
organisms and societies in that both had three main systems. The first
system is the regulative
system. In animals, that
would be the central
nervous system. In
societies, it would be a
government that regulates
everything. The second
system is the sustaining
system. For animals, that’s
the giving and receiving of
nourishment. For societies,
that would be industry
jobs, money, economy and those sorts of things. • The third system would be
the distribution system. In animals, that would be the veins and arteries. In
societies, it would be roads, transportation, and internet – anything in which
information and goods and services are exchanged. Social Darwinism:
Herbert Spencer applied the Darwin’s principle of ‘survival of the fittest’ to
human society. • According to Spencer, the strongest and the fittest should
survive and flourish in society, and the weak should be allowed to die out.
2. The cyclical perspective.
1. Cyclical theories examine the patterns of social structure and culture
that recur at regular intervals.
2. Societies go through a life cycle or life span. Organisms undergo stages
starting from birth, a period of development, maturity, eventual decline
and then death.
3. The necessity for growth is the primary cause of social change.
Ibn-e-Khaldun,
Society is like human being. It ages just like human being. Maximum
age of a human being is 120 years. Average age is 80 years.
Every human society faces cyclic change. Each cycle/stage is half of a
human’s age, i.e. 40 years.
The changes in human society follow the clock-wise pattern and this
circle is repeated after about 120 years in the same society.
There are fixed, definite, clear and standardized stages in this cycle,
each having peculiar economic, social, religious, and political characteristics.
Growth
1. In the stage of growth the individuals are not
united fully and creative leadership is emerging.
2. The people have primary group relations in most of
their daily situations.
3. There is no regular military force and established
State.
4. Kinship loyalties dominate over individual’s
interests.
5. There are potentialities in the population for
making society stronger and richer in all walks of
life.
6. There is solidarity and unity y among the members
of society. Asbiyat is strong
Development
1. At the second stage society becomes stronger in
economic, political, social and in such other fields.
2. The population is not a liability and there is a
strong Government with a well-organized military
3. Trade, commerce and other economic activities
flourish in the society.
4. There is a strong hold of primary groups on the
behaviour of an average person.
5. The commoners enjoy amenities of life to a
reasonable extent.
6. The society is strong to face any out-side
aggression, but the people try to extend their
political powers over the neighboring societies.
Decay
1. At the third stage, society enters in the process of
“decaying”.
2. The commoner starts feeling the taxes are burden.
3. The rulers and chiefs do not have the real political
hold over an average person.
4. People start thinking individually.
5. There is a decline in all the social institutions of
the society.
6. This depression results in creating disorganization
and confusion in the minds of the people.
7. Thus, ultimately the society attains the same
position from where it started 120 years back.
8. Each stage has an age of 40 years
SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGE IN PAKISTAN
1. Mechanized farming
2. The size and structure of the family
3. Education system
4. Changes in Marriage pattern
5. Media
6. Migration
7. Introduction of fast food chains
8. New job opportunities for women
9. Beauty parlors and cyber café’
Three Basic Sources of Social Change
Some sociologists propose that social change takes place basically in one or more of
the following three ways:
1. Discovery
A shared human perception of an aspect of reality which already exists e.g. discovery
of blood circulation in biology. It is an addition to the world’s store of verified
knowledge. However, it becomes a factor in social change only when it is put to use,
not when it is merely known.
2. Inventions
A new combination or a new use of existing knowledge e.g. the assembling of the
automobile from an already existing idea. The idea of combining them was new.
Inventions can be material (technology) and social (alphabet, trade union). Each
invention may be new in form (i.e. in shape or action) in function (what it does) or in
meaning (its long range consequences) or in principle (the theory or law on which it
is based).
3. Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the spread of cultural traits from one group to another. It operates
both within and between societies. It takes place whenever societies come into
contact with each other. Diffusion is a two way process. The British gave us their
language and made tea an important ritual for us Indians; but they adopted several
terms in English from us, for example, Pacca Sahib, Chchota haziri, Jaggernaut, etc.
Diffusion is also a selective process. Majority of the Indians may adopt the English
language, but not their beef-eating habits. Diffusion generally involves some
modification of the borrowed elements of culture either in form, function or meaning.
Exogenous and Endogenous Origin of Change
It is very difficult to determine where and how change originates. Some
sociologists have offered a distinction between endogenous change (change
originating from within) and exogenous change (change entering from outside). In
practice, the origin of change, can only rarely be assigned wholly to one or the other
category. It can be argued that wars and conquest (exogenous origin) have played
an active part in bringing about major social changes in societies across the world.
Again it could be said that in the modern world, the changes taking place in the
developing countries have been stimulated to a large extent, by Western technology
which was introduced in most cases following colonial rule. But in all societies,
including those in which the initial impetus has come from outside, social change
has depended to a great extent upon the activities of various social groups within
the society. A major part of sociological analysis consists in identifying the spheres
and groups, that are principally affected, and the ways in which innovations are
diffused from one sphere to another (Bottomore: 1987: 288)
Acceptance of and Resistance to Social Change
This leads us on to another in social change, namely acceptance of and resistance
to social change. Innovations (inventions and discovery are together termed as
innovations) are rarely accepted totally. The specific attitudes and values of the
society in question, the manifest usefulness of the innovations, the compatibility of
the innovations with the existing culture, vested interests, and the role of change
agents are some of the important factors that affect the degree of acceptance of and
resistance to social change.
FACTORS IN SOCIAL CHANGE
The problems of why change occurs and why it has been made possible, and what
affects the rate of change, is closely linked with the general problem of the factors in
social change. It is more common to speak of the factors that affect social change,
rather than the causes of change. Why? A cause implies that a phenomenon or event,
is both necessary and sufficient to produce a predictable effect. The word ‘necessary’
suggests that we can never have the effect without the preceding cause. The word
‘sufficient’ implies that the cause alone produces the effect. It is very difficult to
establish ‘necessity and sufficiency’ in the social sciences. We prefer to speak of
“factors of change” rather than “causes” of social change (Horton and Hunt: 1981).
Factors that Affect Direction and Rate of Change
1. Physical Environment –Changes in the physical environment often produce
changes in the lives of people.
Human misuse of natural resources can bring very rapid changes in physical
environment which in turn change the social and cultural life of people.
As office buildings, shopping malls, industrial plants, residential areas, and
highways are developed, less land remains as groundcover to absorb rainfall.
2. Geography, Population and Ecology
These factors are seen to bring about sudden changes or set a limit on social change.
Climatic conditions, natural resources, physical location of a country, natural
disasters can be important sources of change. A natural disaster like floods may
destroy entire population, force people to migrate to another place, or make them
rebuild their community all over again. Similarly, increase and decrease in the size
of human population through birth, death or migration can pose a serious challenge
to economic, and political institutions.
In 1947, migration from India was a turning point in the history of Pakistan.
The planners and decision makers faced the serious issue of matching the
resources with the unmanageable growing size of population. Population
welfare Program was launched in 1953 through an NGO, the Family Planning
Association of Pakistan, and focused on advocating and facilitating small
family norms.
Today, many geographic alterations and natural disasters are induced by the
activities of the inhabitants or a region. Soil erosion, water and air pollution may
become severe enough to trigger off new norms and laws regarding how to use
resources and dispose waste products.
3. Conflict, War and Conquest
Change also results from social conflict, including wars, ethnic conflict, efforts by
social movements to change society, and efforts by their opponents to maintain the
status quo
Throughout the history, much change has occurred as a result of wars when the
winning society forces a new political social and economic systems on the losing
society.
In Pakistan, war against terrorism starting in 2001, resulted in terrorist attacks, the
loss of thousands of lives, 2.5 million internally displaced people, and an estimated
$45 Billion cost for the war.
Inter –ethnic group conflict in Pakistan
4. Technology
Technology is recognized as one of the most crucial factors in social change.
Changes in technology can transform culture; and changes in both can alter other
aspects of society. It is a culture that decides the purpose to which a technical
invention must be put. The factories can produce the weapons or necessities of life.
Steel and iron can be used for building warships or tractors. Technology is an
important force for change; in some ways, technological development has made our
lives much easier. The modern factory, means of transportation, medicine, surgery,
mass media, space and computers technology etc. have affected the attitudes, values
and behavior of people across societies. To take a simple example, automobiles and
other means of modern transportation have spread culture, by increasing interaction
among people who live far away from each other. The technology has also created
the potential for new disasters, ranging from global warfare to localized technological
disasters at toxic waste sites.
Telecom research produced Cellular Phones through which it is easy to contact /
connect others around the globe. It wasn’t possible before this technology. SMS,
Whatsapp, Facebook, Tango, Viber and IMO culture.
The technological feats in the area of transport and communication have altered
leisure activities, helped in maintaining social networks, and stimulated the
formation of new social relationships.
In Pakistan, with the emergence of satellite television a demand for media
professionals and performers has been created in the last decade. Discussion
and debate on issues which could not be debated earlier has become possible.
5. Values and Beliefs
The role of values in social change has been clearly brought out in Max Weber’s book,
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber proposed that some
historical situations, doctrines or ideas may independently affect the direction of
social change. He tried to show that the rise of modern capitalism was mainly rooted
in religious values as contained in ascetic Protestantism.
Conflict over incompatible values and beliefs can be an important source of change.
For instance values regarding racial or caste superiority, may clash with the values
of equality of opportunity and status. New laws have emerged to ensure that people
do not face discrimination on the basis of caste or race. Conflicts between groups
within a society, have been and are a major source of innovation and change. For
instance, the establishment of political democracy in Western Europe can be said to
be largely the outcome of class struggles.
6. The Great Men and Women: The role of individuals in social change
It has been pointed out that the contribution by men of genius and leaders to social
change is important. The “great men” (which includes several women leaders as well)
faced a set of circumstance, and their influence arose in part from their ability to
draw out persuasively the latent aspirations, anxieties and fears of large numbers of
people. They were also charismatic leaders. These leaders owed their positions to
personal qualities, and left upon events the mark of their own convictions (Bottomore
1987: 283)
RELEVANCE OF ANALYSING SOCIAL CHANGE
No single theory or factor can explain the origin, direction, manner or consequences
of social change. Change is such a complex process, that it is difficult to explain its
causes, limits and consequences in a definitive specific manner. Sociological
research studies in recent years have concentrated on specific process of social
change, and its effects on society.
Though, sociologists say that they are trying to look at change in an objective
manner, the idea of progress is still very much present in modern social thought.
According to Bottomore (1987), it is evident in the serious commitment to economic
growth in the industrial countries, and subsequently in the countries of the Third
World. More recently, he feels, it has provided the impetus for critical evaluation of
unlimited and uncontrolled economic growth. The effects of technology on the
environment has animated powerful ecology movements, in most of the industrial
and industrialising countries. There are debates about the nature of a “good society”
in relation to the rapid advance of science and technology and to unrestrained
consumerism. According to Bottomore (1987: 290-1), it is not the business of the
sociologist as such to define, a “good” society “or a desirable quality of life” but it is
his/her responsibility indeed to:
1. Be aware of those issues relating to human welfare
2. Outline as precisely as possible the alternative courses of change and their
implications, and
3. Indicate what social forces are at work in producing one outcome rather than
another